Humans, who have opposable thumbs, tend to investigate objects with their hands. In contrast, dogs naturally explore the world with their mouths. When a dog engages with novel objects, the dog generally prefers tactile contact with its mouth versus using its paws.[1] Therefore, dogs are inordinately prone to exhibiting inappropriate chewing behavior.
Chewing is an innate behavior that serves various functions, including stress relief, dental health, and mental stimulation. However, when chewing becomes destructive (e.g., targeting furniture, shoes, or household objects) or dangerous (e.g., chewing and swallowing clothing, sharp objects, or poisonous household plants) the behavior can pose significant challenges for pet owners. Understanding why dogs engage in inappropriate chewing and implementing effective solutions is crucial for both canine welfare and household harmony.
Much like human infants, puppies between 3 weeks and 6 months of age undergo a teething phase. Baby (deciduous) teeth first emerge during weeks 2 – 4 of a puppy’s life. By weeks 5 – 6 the puppy has a full set of 28 deciduous teeth. Deciduous teeth start to fall out (exfoliate) between weeks 12 – 16. By 6 months of age, the puppy should have a complete set of 42 adult teeth,[2] which is 10 more than in humans.
Deciduous and permanent tooth eruption arrive from the development of pulp tissue at the root of the emerging tooth. The referenced pulp tissue growth, in combination with the dissolution of connective tissue about the enamel epithelium, forcefully pushes the new tooth through the gums (gingiva). The process invokes discomfort, principally derived from accompanying gingival swelling and tenderness.[3]
The described pain and irritation are especially notable during the period from 3 to 6-months of age coinciding with the exfoliation of deciduous teeth and arrival of permanent dentition. Chewing helps loosen deciduous teeth and provides gingival palpation that assuages teething stage pain.[4]
Dogs are generally inquisitive and exploratory, especially confident dogs and young dogs. Once obtaining interest via visual stimulation, a dog often investigates objects and surfaces within an environment by using its mouth.[5] Unfortunately, a dog’s natural curiosity may prompt the dog to chew objects incompatible with owner preferences or that pose a health risk to the dog.
Dogs who are temporarily bored or generally understimulated may seek an oral outlet to provide activity or to relieve stress. The preceding is especially problematic when the dog’s lifestyle lacks sufficient exercise, its environment is devoid of appropriate enrichment, or the dog suffers from generalized or state anxiety.[6][7] In cases of anxiety, the oral contact, tactile stimulation, and repetitive activity of chewing may release dopamine,[8] a neurochemical associated with the sensation of pleasure and reward; serotonin, a neurochemical associated with elevated mood states; and/or endorphins, neurotransmitters and neuromodulators that function as analgesics and mood regulators.[9]
Generalized anxiety is a mental health disorder characterized by chronic worry, nervousness, and/or concern that occurs even in the absence of a trigger stimulus.[10][11][12] The condition contrasts with state anxiety, which is acute worry, nervousness, or concern that occurs upon exposure to or the imminent exposure to an identified trigger stimulus.[13][14] Separation anxiety (described in #5) is a type of state anxiety. Generalized anxiety typically has a strong genotypical component,[15] although it can be phenotypical, where it is triggered or exacerbated by a traumatic, stressful, or inhibited environment.[16][17]
Common symptoms of generalized anxiety disorder recognized by DSM-V (Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, 5th Edition) and ICD-10 (International Statistical Classification of Disease, 10th Edition) include restlessness, fatigue, difficulty concentrating, irritability, muscle tension, insomnia, sleep interruption, arrhythmia, and gastric discomfort.[18][19] Other frequent symptoms include hypervigilance, scanning, general insecurity, apprehension, extreme cautiousness, indecisiveness, lack of confidence, pessimism, out of context perception of threat, out of context behavioral responses to perceived threats, trembling/shivering, diarrhea, constipation, inability to relax, panting, ptyalism, inappropriate vocalizations, out of context pain responses, emotional dysregulation, obsessive-compulsive behavior, stereotypic motor movements, pacing, aggression, social anxiety, clingy behavior, difficulty adapting to transitions, involuntary incontinence, inappropriate elimination, irritable bowel syndrome, hot spots, acral lick dermatitis, and inappropriate CHEWING.[20][21][22]
Given its nature, generalized anxiety is omnipresent, ubiquitous, and pervasive. Therefore, symptoms are present to some degree at all times, places, and contexts, although severity may be minimized or elevated based upon temporary state conditions. Consequently, in dogs meeting the diagnostic criteria for generalized anxiety disorder, chewing behavior may be more or less frequent temporally, dependent upon environments, stimuli, or contexts exposed to the dog during a given moment or period.
Separation distress, better known as separation anxiety, can prompt dogs to maladaptively chew, vocalize, eliminate indoors, self-mutilate, attempt escape from an enclosure or home, block owner departure, pace repetitively, salivate, and exhibit extreme biological symptoms, such as elevated heart rate, blood pressure, and/or respiratory rate. Dogs suffering from separation anxiety may chew to psychologically and neurochemically soothe their distressed emotional state. Some dogs may chew items containing owner scent (e.g., couch cushions, pillows) to obtain quasi-owner proximity that mitigates their distress. Other dogs may enter a panicked emotional state and then chew windows or doors to attempt escape.[23][24][25] Moreover, affected dogs may emphasize just one of the listed maladaptive coping responses listed above or display multiple behaviors when attempting to relieve their frustration or panic.[26]
Dogs fed an insufficient volume of food or fed just once per day may temporarily or chronically chew non-food items to satisfy hunger cravings.[27] Pica, a condition where dogs compulsively ingest non-edible objects, may be linked to dietary deficiencies, especially mineral deficiencies such as zinc and iron; nutritional malabsorption; gastrointestinal disorders;[28] boredom; and anxiety.[29][30]
Pica is most common in young dogs and neutered dogs, perhaps because gonadectomy increases a dog’s appetite.[31] Furthermore, neutering a male dog can increase the probability of anxiety,[32] as testosterone increases serotonin transporter (SERT) binding[33] and after aromatization into estradiol mediates the enzyme tryptophan hydroxylase-2 essential to central nervous system serotonin synthesis.[34][35][36][37]
Dogs may chew inappropriate items to gain attention, especially if a dog learns the behavior elicits a reaction from owners. Even negative attention, such as a verbal or physical reprimand, can positively reinforce chewing behavior by inadvertently providing engagement.[38]
Barrier frustration may occur when passive or active restraint prevents a dog from accessing a desired stimulus,[39] such as a person, dog, cat, or wild animal. Similarly, barrier frustration may occur when a dog is anxious or resentful while confined in a small space, like a crate. In either case, the frustrated dog may attempt to chew, destroy, and escape the barrier, which may be a leash, window, door, or kennel.
A dog may chew inappropriately due to a lack of education regarding what is an acceptable versus unacceptable chew item. The preceding occurs most frequently when an owner fails to supervise, whereupon the dog is allowed to “train itself,” or when an owner provides his/her dog excess freedom inside the home before the dog is emotionally and cognitively ready to receive such freedom. Ironically, providing an excess amount of desirable chew items may also confuse a dog, whereby the dog has so many choices that it has difficulty discerning appropriate items from inappropriate items.
As discussed in the introduction, chewing is a practical, self-rewarding behavior for an exploratory, inquisitive, or otherwise unoccupied dog. Chewing is a normal canine behavior. However, chewing behavior becomes problematic when a dog cannot accurately differentiate designated chew toys from inappropriate household objects, doesn’t care to differentiate items, or prefers human articles.
CPT prefers a trifurcated (3-pronged) approach when designing behavior modification programs for client dogs. The 3 prongs are: 1) origin, 2) prevention, and 3) symptomatic.
The origin prong addresses the root cause of a dog’s behavior. Origin solutions are often concurrently quality of life solutions that enable a dog to achieve a more relaxed, content emotional state. Most importantly, successful origin solutions resolve the dog’s need to chew inappropriately. Thus, by using benevolent methodologies we can simultaneously extinguish inappropriate chewing behavior, create a happier dog, and obtain a satisfied owner.
The prevention prong focuses on removing access to the behavior. Chewing behavior can be habitual and compulsive. If a dog’s present nature is to chew inappropriately, then left unattended and unencumbered that is what the dog will do. Therefore, to achieve goal outcomes, we must prevent unimpeded access to inappropriate items until a customized behavior modification program has had ample time to reach fruition. To successfully encourage adoption of a replacement behavior, where the dog ultimately chews only defined dog-chew items, the owner should first discontinue access to the extant behavior. Otherwise, undesirable destructive behavior will most probably continue.
The symptomatic prong emphasizes positive reinforcement and adaptation of instinct to facilitate adoption of a replacement behavior, whereby the dog chews only designated dog-chew items. For this prong to work, we must diligently apply the prevention prong while simultaneously providing access to equally fulfilling dog-chew items. There are a variety of chew items that dogs typically enjoy. Yet, preferences for specific materials, textures, sizes, weights, shapes, and activities will vary individually amongst dogs. Consequently, for the successful adoption of a replacement behavior, the owner must select items that are inherently pleasing to his/her dog.
In most cases, addressing the origin, applying preventive strategies, and implementing positive reinforcement will be sufficient to expeditiously achieve goal outcomes, which equates to a cessation of all destructive chewing. However, in the most severe or refractory cases, where a dog receives significantly more pleasure from chewing an inappropriate object or where the dog has developed an extreme habit or compulsion to return to an inappropriate location or item, then we may need to include punishment to the symptomatic solution repertoire. When modifying chewing behavior, the punishment method usually falls within the category of aversive conditioning. In such a case, the role of the aversive is to make the previously coveted item less attractive as a chew object, which then inflates the relative value of the replacement item, whose use we encourage via positive reinforcement.
To minimize aches, discomfort, and pain from sore gums, wet and freeze a rope toy or a long, thin vegetable, such as a carrot. The cold from the ice will diminish pain and misery. In addition, during the teething stage avoid tug games with your dog, as an inadvertent tug may dislodge a tooth, which may cause pain your dog permanently associates with the tug item employed during the game.
Exploratory behavior is a sign of normal ontogenesis. Therefore, owners should encourage developing puppies to confidently explore environments. Nevertheless, to prevent damage to personal property and enhance safety for your puppy or new dog, you should supervise his/her exploratory process by closely monitoring his activity or by tethering with a leash. When over several weeks your dog exhibits consistent maturity and responsible behavior, which includes chewing only designated dog-chew items, then you can begin providing unsupervised freedom.
Enhance the value of exploration by teaching your puppy or new dog which items are appropriate. Encourage interaction with appropriate items. While supervising, hand your dog designated chew products. Praise lightly when your dog interacts with the items. However, don’t praise too effusively, or else you may draw attention toward you and away from the item. If your dog initially ignores the chew product, then figuratively “bring the item to life” by employing the product in a tug, chase, or retrieve game. Then, praise your dog when your dog shows tactile or oral interest in the item independent of the game.
Furthermore, so your dog can easily locate his/her dog chews and more effectively ignore household items and your children’s toys, place your dog’s chews in a dog-specific toy box. Then, praise your dog when he/she independently selects items from the box.
Maximize the probability of your puppy or dog chewing only appropriate items by purchasing durable products your dog innately finds intriguing and satisfying. Items dogs frequently enjoy include sterilized bones, deer or elk antlers, Nylabones®, Gumabones®, stuffed animals for dogs, squeaky toys, Kong® toys, Dental Kongs®, rope toys, soccer balls, Jolly Balls®, and hard plastic “indestructible” balls for dogs. Your dog should find one or more of the categories preferable to wood trim, furniture, cushions, laundry, or the remote control.
Nevertheless, several of the recommended choices may present some caveats. Hard chew items can cause fractured teeth, especially amongst hard-biting dogs who chew principally with molars or premolars. Consumable plastic items may cause diarrhea. Rawhides, which were not on the list, can cause diarrhea and may cause esophageal or intestinal blockages if not chewed well before swallowing. Similarly, small toys, rope toys that unravel, and squeakers removed from stuffed animals can cause digestive system blockages. Therefore, only offer size-appropriate items and discard products once they are worn, torn, or otherwise present undue safety risks. Furthermore, when providing a new product, initially monitor your dog’s interaction to ensure he/she is chewing the item safely.
Inappropriate chewing is more apt to occur if your dog has an excess of available dog chews. To maximize the probability of your puppy or dog chewing only appropriate items, purchase approximately 10 diversified products from the recommendations listed in the preceding section. Then, place only 4 distinct items in your dog’s toy box, while keeping the others hidden in reserve. Once per week rotate out 1 – 3 items that appear to interest your dog least for replacement items from the hidden reserve. When determining the rotation pattern, maintain diversity in material, texture, dimension, and category.
A tired dog is a happy dog and belongs to a happy owner. Avert boredom and general understimulation by proactively stimulating your dog with regularly scheduled walks, rigorous exercise sessions, play, and obedience training. When designing a proactive stimulation program, ensure the program is appropriate for your dog’s age, temperament, and aptitude- and for weather, temperature, and safety conditions.
In addition, for times when you aren’t the center of your dog’s entertainment, provide an enriching environment both indoors and outdoors.
Indoors, provide chew items from the recommended list; small or medium-size balls your dog can carry, drop, and chase; large balls your dog can roll and chase; puzzle toys your dog can interact with cognitively; a lick mat that can occupy your dog orally and soothe him/her emotionally during periods of isolation;[40] and a soft dog bed for comfort and relaxation. In addition, open shades, curtains, and shutters to provide your dog a view of the outdoors, where he/she can observe wildlife. If possible, allow your dog access to a screened window or door, where he/she can smell and better hear outdoor activity.[41]
Outdoors, to minimize the risk of your dog digging, chewing plants, or chewing the deck, stock the yard with appropriate chew items; ball options to carry and roll; a sandbox for allowed digging; and engaging agility obstacles, such as jumps and a tunnel.[42] In addition, in the summer provide a shady area for comfort, safety, and relaxation. In the winter, provide an enclosed area for warmth, safety, and security.
If your dog exhibits distress or frustration arising from confinement within a barrier, then consider modifying or enlarging the barrier. For instance, exchange a small crate for a larger crate. Consider an exercise pen or large kennel in lieu of a crate. Contemplate a baby-gated room instead of a dedicated dog enclosure. The best solution simultaneously keeps your dog safe, prevents inappropriate chewing, and minimizes or extinguishes distress or frustration.
If you believe your dog exhibits generalized anxiety disorder (GAD) in accordance with the definition and symptom profile described in Section II-4, then we recommend scheduling a virtual private or in-home private session with a CPT Head Trainer. The CPT Head Trainer will complete a diagnostic that includes: a) inquiring about your dog’s lineage; b) asking an inventory of questions about your dog’s chronological, behavioral, health, and training history; c) observing your dog; and d) evaluating your dog’s emotional and behavioral responses to stimuli, contexts, and transitions.
First, the referenced diagnostic will aid the CPT Head Trainer in determining whether your dog actually has generalized anxiety, state anxiety, both, or neither. Second, should your dog have generalized anxiety or anxiety, the diagnostic will aid in designing a customized solution plan that best reduces or alleviates your dog’s anxiety.
Generalized anxiety solutions typically involve holistic, homeopathic, quality of life, and nutritional solutions. In severe cases, we may also suggest obtaining a psychopharmaceutical prescription for fluoxetine, clomipramine, trazodone, gabapentin, or another option your veterinarian may recommend.
State anxiety solutions emphasize exposure therapy drills, sometimes called counterconditioning and systematic desensitization drills, along with general and context-specific impulse and cognitive control drills, environmental management, and handling adaptations. Since state anxiety is often comorbid with generalized anxiety disorder, the menu of solutions may also include some or all of the solutions pertinent for generalized anxiety disorder.
If your dog incessantly chews a particular object, especially if the chewing is extreme in frequency or duration, occurs out of context, interferes with normal activities or functions (e.g., eating, playing, toileting), and/or its prevention or absence causes an increase in anxious arousal, then your dog may have an obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD). OCD is often comorbid with generalized anxiety disorder. In cases of obsessive-compulsive behavior, we recommend virtual private or in-home private instruction with a CPT Head Trainer. The solution plan normally consists of the generalized anxiety solution plan; removing access to the pertinent item; diverting behavior to a more productive item, context, or activity; and increasing the time, vigor, or difficulty of walking, exercise, play, or training sessions. Nevertheless, the solution plan is customized for each client dog and must be implemented carefully, or else removal of the item prompting the obsession may increase the anxiety-prone dog’s distress.
Separation anxiety is probable when inappropriate chewing occurs exclusively when you are not home or are otherwise inaccessible or when the behavior becomes more pronounced when you are not home or accessible. Separation distress can be a highly refractory behavior. In cases of separation anxiety, associated distress becomes the primary problem. Chewing is secondary to the distress. Dogs with separation anxiety often chew as a coping behavior to minimize the emotional and biological symptoms of distress. Therefore, you must first successfully treat your dog’s separation anxiety to ultimately extinguish his/her chewing behavior.
Separation anxiety solution plans are detailed and complex. The article “Treating Separation Anxiety in Dogs,”[43] available on the CPT website or by clicking the provided link, provides a thorough solution plan. Nevertheless, despite the excellence of the article, we recommend a virtual private or in-home private appointment with a CPT Head Trainer. That way we can customize the solution plan for your dog, home, schedule, lifestyle, and preferences.
If you believe your dog chews to obtain attention, do not chase your dog or yell at your dog when you observe your dog chew something inappropriately. Instead, calmly walk up to your dog, placidly remove the offensive object, and replace the item with an acceptable dog chew product. Even better, as explained in Section II-3, preemptively encourage your dog to chew appropriate items by encouraging interaction with the product and then employing praise for your dog’s desirable behavior. In addition, schedule a regular, rigorous, and age-appropriate proactive stimulation program, whereby your dog already receives ample quality attention.
Feeding 2 – 3 times per day versus once per day and feeding the proper amount for your dog’s age, weight, physical condition, and activity level should alleviate hunger origins. In addition, select the right type of food amongst puppy, adult, senior, lite, or high-activity. Some foods are higher or lower in kilocalories per unit volume. Feeding a lower calorie food allows you to feed a greater amount, which will better satiate your dog. Alternatively, you can supplement your dog’s diet with canned pumpkin or green beans, which will provide substance without a significant addition in calories. When selecting pumpkin or bean products, do not select a product with added sugar or salt.
If your dog still acts underfed, then he/she may have a congenital or disease condition affecting nutrient absorption. In such case, I recommend a veterinary visit. Internal parasites, gastrointestinal disease, diabetes mellitus, hyperthyroidism, or other health conditions may affect nutrient absorption and/or increase appetite. Therefore, when your dog has a pervasive chewing problem and any of the listed medical conditions, successfully treating the primary health condition becomes essential. Otherwise, your dog is likely to continue his/her inappropriate chewing behavior.
In addition, certain medications may iatrogenically increase appetite. Common veterinary medications that may increase appetite include prednisone, anti-epileptic drugs, benzodiazepines, and megestrol acetate. If your dog exhibits a destructive chewing problem and is prescribed any of the preceding medications, discuss with your veterinarian about the possibility of lowering the dosage or switching to an alternative medication.
Likewise, if you feed very little, but your dog inordinately gains weight, then it is also time for a veterinary visit. Hypothyroidism, neoplasia formation, ovarian cysts, kidney disease, and medication complications can cause weight gain.
As discussed in the Section III introduction, if allowed unsupervised, unencumbered access to objects previously chewed, your dog will likely continue his/her inappropriate chewing behavior. Sections III-A-2 and A-3 describe supervisory methods. Yet, you can’t actively or passively supervise your dog all the time. You need to go to work, shop for groceries, go to the toilet, and perform other tasks and functions that don’t include your dog’s accompaniment.
During times your destructive chewer is unsupervised, you must employ a method of humane confinement that prevents inappropriate chewing, while simultaneously providing an emotionally safe harbor for your dog. Crates and exercise pens are the easiest and most flexible solution. However, as communicated in Sections I-8 and II-A-7, barrier frustration may pose a confound. In such case, consider an outdoor kennel or large basement kennel or a baby-gated, dog-proofed room. If none of the preceding options appear functional for practical, cost, or humane reasons, then consider enrolling your dog in a local dog day care. Regardless, if you wish to modify inappropriate chewing behavior, then you must prevent its continuation.
Sometimes owners inadvertently entice a dog to perform inappropriate chewing behavior by leaving attractive portable items within a dog’s easy reach. Child toys often resemble dog toys, which can confuse a well-meaning dog. Therefore, children should be taught to place unused child toys in a closed, dedicated toy basket, instead of remaining strewn about the floor. In addition, if kids have a dedicated playroom or play area, then close the door or segregate the open area with portable gating.
Remote controls contain owner scent, which is especially attractive when a dog is unattended. Remote controls often are also the target for attention-seeking behavior. Consequently, store your remotes atop tall counters or tables, rather than on the floor, a low coffee table, or the couch. Similarly to the remote control, laundry, especially socks and underwear, contain owner scent. Thus, dogs often seek socks, underwear, or shirts when lonely or when seeking attention. To extinguish the behavior, place laundry immediately inside a closed hamper, instead of dumping used clothing on the floor, a chair, or the bed.
Furthermore, if you have a safe haven in which your dog does not display chewing behavior, such as the kitchen or a bathroom, then when departing consider baby gating your dog inside the naturally dog-proofed room. The strategy will prevent access to more figuratively or literally dangerous areas of the house.
When present at home, until your dog is sufficiently responsible when loose in the house, have your dog wear a leash, whereby you can easily pull your dog away from a chewing situation. Even better, tether the leash to you or to a chair or sofa where you are sitting. This way you can semi-actively supervise. Supervision enables you to more effectively teach your dog what products are designated dog chews and what items are unacceptable. Of equal importance, tethering prevents bad habits from forming or continuing, which better fosters the development of desirable habits.
Purchase low-cost indoor video cameras. Place the cameras so you have a field of view anywhere your dog moves about the house. Ensure the cameras come with an app that sends images to your phone. Video monitoring allows you to measure your dog’s behavior and behavioral improvement real-time. You can then assess with objective data where, when, and what your dog chews. Subsequently, you can apply the data constructively when determining how to improve or progress your dog’s behavior modification program.
When your dog’s body language, visual orientation, and overall actions indicate he/she desires to imminently chew an unacceptable object, before your dog begins to chew, redirect him/her toward you with a pleasant “Come” command, effusive praise, a treat for arriving, and then mutual interaction with a toy. Response redirection is “a deliberate effort to place attention and energy on actions, thoughts, or interactions that are more meaningful or important.”[44]
Redirection fosters a cognitive shift, defined as “a shift in focus”[45]derived from a “mental process of consciously redirecting attention from one fixation to another.”[46] Cognitive shifting is a major component of cognitive therapy, developed by esteemed University of Pennsylvania psychiatrist Aaron Beck, where patients consciously shift thoughts, attentions, and behaviors from unhealthy, maladaptive mechanisms to healthier, more adaptive alternatives.[47][48] By redirecting with sufficient frequency, we not only prevent chewing in the immediate moments, but we may encourage permanent behavior modification, whereby your dog independently comes to you or lies relaxed in lieu of chewing.
If your dog has already begun chewing, calmly walk up to your dog, and offer to exchange the unacceptable household object, child’s toy, woodwork, or cushion for a mutually acceptable designated dog chew. Then, praise your dog for cooperating and completing the exchange.
If your dog is holding a portable object and is hesitant to release the object, then amicably command Drop or Give. Once your dog completes the release behavior, reward him/her with a treat. Then, complete the exchange. Initially, show you have a treat. Later, hide the treat and require the release behavior before rewarding with a hidden treat. However, be wary that over time your dog may use chewing behavior to cunningly manipulate you to provide treats. In such case, complete the exchange without the inclusion of further treats.
Approach calmly and affably. Do not yell, rush, or chase. Yelling, rushing, and chasing are likely to inadvertently prompt your dog to run away, hide under a bed or behind furniture, or exhibit defensive dog-owner aggression.
By approaching calmly, obtaining cooperation, and attaining participation, we hope to ultimately accomplish the permanent cognitive therapy goals stated above in the Redirection section.
Due to the psychological principles of momentum and persistence, exchanging for an appropriate chew item may reduce frequency, while concurrently elevating behavioral momentum and persistence. Therefore, exchanging for a compatible chew item or even a divergent item, but still a compatible chewing behavior, may backfire.
“Behavioral momentum” is resistance to behavioral change, despite efforts to interrupt or modify a behavior via changes in reinforcement conditions. The more difficult to disrupt an activity, the greater the behavioral momentum.[49] “Persistence” is continuance or repetition of a behavior, process, or activity, despite cessation of an initiating stimulus; maintaining a course of action despite obstacles; or continuance or existence for longer than is usual or expected.[50]
Exchanging for a compatible object or behavior can create an inadvertent behavioral chain, whereby, from the animal’s perspective, performance of the first behavior (chewing inappropriately) sequentially leads to favorable outcomes per the performance of the second behavior (chewing appropriately and receiving positive reinforcement via owner interaction and praise). This inadvertent behavior chain fosters momentum.[51] Thus, despite positively reinforcing your dog chewing the appropriate item, you may inadvertently also reinforce chewing of the inappropriate item, as chewing the first item commences the process of receiving reinforcement associated with the second item. Subsequently, momentum and persistence become stronger.[52]
As an aside, behavioral momentum is not always an undesirable outcome. When teaching a new behavior via positive reinforcement, with a goal of the subject adopting the behavior intrinsically, we want behavioral momentum. In such a case, by introducing the behavior in a simple manner and applying high-value positive reinforcers, behavioral momentum strengthens the desirable behavior, whereby the dog will likely develop a highly positive attitude toward the behavior and remain compliant with the behavior, even upon a reduction in reinforcer frequency or valence.[53][54][55]
When using exchange or interruption and exchange to reduce destructive chewing behavior, to minimize the probability of undesirable momentum and persistence, in lieu of exchanging for an alternative chew object, try exchanging for a completely diametric activity, such as a puzzle toy, playing ball outside, obedience training, a walk, or a run.[56] The momentum minimization benefit is likely greatest if both the exchanged activity and environmental context are divergent from the variables present during the initial chewing behavior.
Response interruption and redirection (RIRD) may be necessary when inappropriate chewing behavior is obsessive-compulsive or highly self-rewarding.[57] In such circumstances, solely walking up to your dog or calmly requesting an exchange may be insufficient to compel your dog to cease undesirable chewing activity. Therefore, implement a salient sensory stimulus that diverts your dog’s attention and interrupts his/her chewing behavior.[58] Then, proceed with the exchange.
Auditory and tactile stimuli work best when obtaining interruption. Auditory stimuli may include calmly and positively saying your dog’s name; a moderate negative verbal “No” or “Leave It;” or the introduction of an intriguing or startling sound, such as opening the refrigerator, dropping a book, or banging pots. Tactile stimuli may include human touch or a mild leash correction. Select an option that from history contains sufficient salience and intensity to foster an interruption of your dog’s inappropriate chewing behavior.
After you interrupt your dog’s inappropriate chewing behavior and he/she accepts the exchange, exuberantly praise your dog for modifying his/her behavior.
Response blocking constitutes physically preventing a behavior from occurring, with an intention of reducing or eliminating maladaptive actions.[59] Response blocking is often employed within Applied Behavior Analysis (ABA) programs. The technique is an effective tool when the existing habitual or stereotypic behavior is maladaptive and automatically reinforced (self-rewarding). Response blocking is much more effective when combined with redirection toward a satisfying alternative and/or replacement behavior.[60] Without redirection, if a behavior is highly compulsive, then response blocking may impose the side effects of frustration and aggression.[61]
Leashing/tethering is an effective mode of response blocking. Tethering prevents access to undesirable chew targets, whereupon you can effectively redirect your dog to a mutually desirable alternative and then praise the outcome. Moreover, response blocking in the form of tethering prevents the continuation of bad habits, which increases the opportunity of you successfully teaching the adoption of good chewing habits.
Positive reinforcement principles, developed by Edward Thorndike and BF Skinner, state that by associating a favorable outcome or stimulus with a behavior we strengthen and increase the frequency of the behavior.[62] Therefore, to strengthen and increase the frequency of appropriate chewing behavior you should positively reinforce the behavior.
In the case of strengthening proper chewing behavior the most applicable reinforcer is typically praise. Food reward is sometimes appropriate. However, providing a food reward inadvertently interrupts appropriate chewing behavior. Consequently, praise in a pleasant voice is generally the preferred reinforcer when teaching appropriate chewing behavior.
You should praise when your dog chews appropriately of his own volition. Likewise, you should praise after redirection. Once a behavior becomes the norm, then extrinsic reinforcement becomes less valuable, whereby the behavior itself may be automatically and intrinsically reinforcing. Therefore, as proper chewing behavior becomes more frequent you can reduce the frequency of praise. Concordantly, you should praise only infrequently once your dog extinguishes inappropriate chewing behavior and chews only designated dog chew products.
In the most refractory cases, especially if a dog’s chewing behavior is obsessive-compulsive or when a dog perceives chewing a specific item as inordinately high in inherent reward, then exclusively positive symptomatic methods may fail. We recommend starting with a program that emphasizes origin solutions, prevention, and positive symptomatic methods, without punishment. However, if initial efforts neglect to achieve goal outcomes, especially if property the dog destroys is valuable or presents a safety hazard, then we recommend amending the program and including punishment methods.
BF Skinner’s operant conditioning model describes punishment as any action or consequence that decreases the frequency of a behavior.[63] Punishment is subclassified into positive or negative punishment. Positive punishment involves the addition of an aversive stimulus. Negative punishment involves the removal of a desirable stimulus.[64][65]
The solutions below describe positive punishment solutions. By adding positive punishment, we intend for the dog to associate unpleasant outcomes with inappropriate chewing behavior, whereby appropriate chew items become comparatively more pleasant, and we affect indelible behavioral change.
Nevertheless, for punishment to work, you should employ the punisher consistently and reliably- each time your dog commits an infraction. Otherwise, a punishment program is less likely to achieve success.
In addition, you must apply the punishment with proper timing.[66] Optimally, punish immediately upon the commencement of the inappropriate behavior. At the least, punish while the behavior is occurring. Do not punish the behavior if you only observe damage, but not the behavior. Never punish after a behavior concludes. Punishment after a behavior concludes only allows an owner to vent hostility, but is useless from a learning perspective, and perhaps detrimental to the dog-owner relationship.
Similarly, the intensity of the punishment stimulus is also relevant[67]. If the pleasure a dog receives from chewing an inappropriate item exceeds the unpleasant impact of the punishment stimulus, then the punishment will fail to deter future behavior.[68] Thus, the punishment stimulus should be of sufficient intensity to interrupt temporal chewing and to prompt the dog to avoid chewing an inappropriate item permanently in the future. In that regard, the more strongly compulsive or self-rewarding the inappropriate chewing behavior, then the more intense the punishment needs to be for the punishment to successfully modify behavior. Nevertheless, the valence associated with a specific punishment stimulus or stimulus intensity will vary amongst individual dogs. Therefore, an owner should customize punishment solutions for the temperament and behavioral response of each specific dog.
Lastly, punishment solutions include the potential caveat of a dog associating the punishment with owner approach, rather than chewing behavior. In such cases, there is a risk of the dog running away, learning to avoid owner interaction, or responding with defensive dog-owner aggression.[69] Therefore, know your dog before instituting punishment. Ensure that your relationship is strong enough to endure beyond the punishment. Moreover, ensure the dog’s temperament and psyche is strong enough to withstand punishment.[70] For instance, you likely should not punish an insecure rescue dog new to your home, whereas punishing a confident, well-bonded dog obtained as a puppy is unlikely to fracture your relationship.
One nice thing about positive reinforcement is that the worst that will happen is the program won’t work. In contrast, the worst that will happen with a punishment program is not only won’t the program work, but you may create additional problems more severe than the initial problem behavior.[71] Consequently, consider everything expressed in this section before adding punishment into your dog’s behavior modification program.
Your verbal reprimand needs to be sufficient in pitch, duration, and volume to interrupt your dog’s destructive behavior and prompt future avoidance of the behavior. A human verbal reprimand should in many respects imitate a growl, a communication a dog will inherently understand. Yet, to better fit within the vocal training, skills, and anatomy of a human, substitute the words “No” or “Leave it” in lieu of literally growling. If your dog fails to respond, then deepen the pitch, increase the duration, or raise the volume.
To minimize the risk of fear, retaliatory behavior, or a deterioration of the dog-owner relationship, once your dog complies, follow the reprimand with an exchange and positive reinforcement.
“Leave it” training is most effective when conducted preemptively. The technique is a form of aversive conditioning, also called “aversion therapy.”[72]
Aversive conditioning is a form of classical conditioning where a behavior is paired with an unpleasant stimulus. Generally, a dog trainer, therapist, or experimenter employs aversive conditioning in an effort to reduce the frequency of an undesirable, inappropriate, or maladaptive behavior.[73] Prior to the onset of pairing the aversive, the human or animal typically finds the behavior inherently rewarding. However, by pairing the behavior with an aversive the animal begins associating the behavior with the aversive stimulus and unpleasantries. Consequently, the frequency of the behavior declines or the behavior extinguishes entirely.[74]
To commence preemptive “Leave it” training, first place an item your dog inappropriately and frequently chews on the floor. Then, leash your dog and approach the stationary item. If your dog lunges toward the object or orally reaches for the object, direct the leash in the opposite direction of the dog’s movement to prevent the dog from orally accessing the item. Concurrently, growl “Leave it” in a deep and loud voice. When your dog moves away from the object, either of its own volition or due to your physical or verbal influence, reward your dog with ebullient praise (“Good Leave it”) and a smile. If your dog provides visual attention toward you and away from the object, also provide a high-value treat reward. If your dog doesn’t reach for the object, then immediately praise and treat, regardless of whether your dog is attentive.
In the second stage, identically set up the scenario. Again walk your leashed dog toward the prone item. Similarly, apply a leash correction and growl “Leave it” if your dog attempts to access the item. Likewise, praise effervescently once your dog avoids the object or if your dog ignores the object from the onset. However, in this stage, only supply a treat reward if your dog ignores the object without needing a correction.
After a “Leave it” training session, hand your dog an appropriate chew item. Then, lightly praise your dog for interacting with the item.
By employing a combination of “Leave it” aversive physical and verbal conditioning, positive reinforcement (praise, treat), and exchange (the appropriate item), we should change your dog’s mindset regarding the logic and safety of chewing the inappropriate item. Thus, your dog should less frequently chew the inappropriate item or extinguish all chewing of the inappropriate item and instead more frequently chew the appropriate item as a satisfying replacement oral behavior.
“Semi-active” is CPT’s vernacular for training administered by the owner, but where from the dog’s perspective the owner is not conspicuously affiliated with the consequence. For instance, in a positive reinforcement program, examples of active training include owner communicated praise, petting, handing a treat to the dog, or play. Examples of semi-active training include a treat or toy delivered from a remote-controlled dispenser, where owner action is requisite to the reward delivery, but where the owner action is unconscious to the dog. With punishment or aversive conditioning, a verbal reprimand or leash correction are examples of active training. In contrast, an air horn or electronic collar are examples of semi-active training, as the owner’s presence is needed, although the dog may not observe or understand the relevance of the owner’s action.
Semi-active aversive conditioning poses some potential advantages versus active aversive conditioning. First, because you are not directly communicating with your dog, we reduce the risk of retaliatory aggression or injury to the dog-owner relationship.
Second, since you are not conspicuously proximal during administration of the aversive, your dog is less likely to associate the necessity of your presence with the aversive. Therefore, the effects of the aversive should more effectively endure, regardless of whether you are present. In contrast, with an active verbal or physical owner-delivered aversive your dog may determine he/she is safe to continue inappropriate chewing when you aren’t nearby.
Third, your dog is more likely to associate the onset of the aversive with the behavior itself, rather than with your proximity. Therefore, your dog is more likely to cognitively determine that he/she should avoid the inappropriate object and instead chew an appropriate designated dog chew your dog doesn’t associate with aversive outcomes.
The following are tools for applying semi-active aversive conditioning:
When employing an air horn, station yourself distant from your dog, but where you can still view your dog’s activity. Produce a blast of the horn immediately upon observing your dog orally grasping or chewing an inappropriate object, especially an item your dog has previously chewed or similar to one your dog has previously chewed.
Do not blast the horn for your dog merely contacting the item with his/her muzzle. Do not procrastinate. Blast the horn immediately upon your dog attempting to hold or chew the object. That way your dog receives no satisfaction from the activity.
If the blast is adequately startling and aversive, your dog should drop the inappropriate object. Ideally, the air horn is sufficiently aversive, whereby after 1 – 3 events your dog subsequently avoids the object on a permanent basis.
Nevertheless, some dogs are more noise tolerant than others. Highly noise tolerant dogs may ignore the loud blast. Therefore, the air horn method is unlikely to modify the behavior of a highly noise tolerant dog.
Highly sensitive dogs may for a few minutes exhibit fearful or neurotic behavior. Therefore, try to limit usage with a particularly noise sensitive dog, as we wish to minimize the risk of potentially affecting your dog’s emotional state. We only wish to modify chewing behavior.
Moreover, the air horn may inadvertently discipline other household pets, who did nothing wrong. Therefore, if you have a multi-pet household, place other pets outside or in a distant room before using the air horn- or reconsider using an air horn as a behavior modification tool.
There is one last caveat. The air horn is unpleasant for people. Furthermore, placing the device near your ear or using the device frequently may cause hearing damage.
For those desiring to use an air horn, CPT recommends the 127 dB, 8-ounce, Sea Sense brand air horn. Moreover, CPT recommends purchasing a 3-pack. This way, you should remain prepared for multiple items and contingencies, without experiencing an empty can when you wish to produce a blast.
Like the air horn, the ultrasonic trainer is an auditory aversive. Ultrasonic trainers usually emit a 25 KHz sound, which is beyond the audible human limit of 20 KHz. From the standpoints of context and timing, you can use the device similarly to the methods explained above for the air horn. Nevertheless, you should consider the ultrasonic trainer’s advantages and disadvantages before employing the apparatus.
Compared to the air horn, which outdoors may have a range of up to 1 mile, the ultrasonic trainer has a range of 16 feet. This is both an advantage and disadvantage. You are less likely to inadvertently impact other household pets. However, you must place yourself closer to your dog.
From the standpoint of effectiveness, the air horn is a more potent aversive. From experience, the Sea Sense air horn affects 70 – 80% of dogs, with 20 – 30% ignoring the blast; paying minor attention to the blast; or temporarily interrupting behavior, but eventually habituating to the sound. In contrast, only about 20 – 30% of dogs respond significantly to the ultrasonic trainer, and those dogs typically require more repetitions before modifying their behavior. The remaining 70 – 80%% either ignore the sound or quickly habituate to the sound.
In addition, the device won’t work with deaf dogs and is less likely to work with senior dogs.
On a good note, the sound emitted by the ultrasonic trainer is inaudible to humans. Therefore, family members and neighbors won’t complain. Moreover, the device does not damage human hearing.
If you elect to use an ultrasonic trainer, CPT recommends the Modus brand trainer. When using the trainer, buy plenty of AAA batteries, as the device depletes battery power quickly, unless you remove batteries between each use. However, if you remove batteries, then you are unprepared for the immediate moment your dog begins chewing.
Before we describe the vibrating -electronic collar and how you can effectively employ an electronic collar to reduce your dog’s inappropriate chewing, I wish to acknowledge that use of electronic collars is highly controversial within the dog training industry. Therefore, in this section we are not advocating the use of an electronic collar. Rather, we are listing a vibrating-electronic collar as a potential solution for refractory dogs. Moreover, we are communicating the most humane and effective method for employing an e-collar should a reader elect to take that route.
In many respects a vibrating-e-collar is tantamount to the air horn. The air horn is an auditory aversive. The e-collar is a tactile aversive. Thus, usage methods are very similar. However, there are some considerations and caveats unique to the electronic collar.
First, let’s discuss the similarities. When employing a vibrating-electronic collar, station yourself distant from your dog, but where you can still view your dog’s activity. Produce a vibration or electronic stimulus immediately upon observing your dog orally grasping or chewing an inappropriate object, especially an item your dog has previously chewed or similar to one your dog has previously chewed.
Do not initiate a stimulus for your dog merely contacting the item with his/her muzzle. Do not procrastinate. Press the constant button of the collar transmitter immediately upon your dog attempting to hold or chew the object. That way your dog receives no satisfaction from the activity.
If the collar vibration or electronic stimulus is adequately startling and aversive, your dog should drop the inappropriate object. Ideally, the collar stimulus is sufficiently aversive, whereby after 1 – 3 events your dog subsequently avoids the object on a permanent basis.
Now, we will discuss considerations and caveats unique to the e-collar.
First, so your dog does not become “collar smart,” whereby he/she understands the role of the collar and only adheres when wearing the collar, you should have your dog wear the collar as a dummy for at least 2 weeks before beginning practical use. This way, once you start using the collar, the probability is higher that your dog will associate the aversive stimulus with the specific inappropriate chew item, rather than with wearing the collar.
Second, you need to determine whether you will employ the vibration stimulus or the static electric stimulus. Since the static electric stimulus has many potential levels from low to high (some collars offer over 120 level options), the static electric stimulus is often perceived less perniciously by the dog, as you can set the level to where it is undetectable, barely detectable, or various gradients higher.
In contrast, the vibration stimulus has one setting, which is often too high for a dog to tolerate without undue subsequent nervousness. From observation, the majority of dogs are more apt to exhibit a fearful emotional state from the vibration stimulus.
Remember, we wish to prompt a cessation of chewing, without provoking fear. Therefore, for the majority of dogs, the electric option is a better choice than the vibration option. However, some dogs are highly sensitive to even low levels of the electric option and more tolerant of the surface vibration option, whereupon vibration may become a superior choice.
Third, if you use the electric stimulus, you must select a level that deters the onset of chewing behavior, but that does not create anxiety or panic. We wish minor discomfort, without fear. If your dog responds with a minimal involuntary neuromuscular twitch, then you probably have the right level. Nevertheless, remain vigilant when determining the optimal level setting. Depending upon the model and the number of level options, there may be a very small bandwidth between ineffective, effective, and excessive.
Fourth, for the collar to work effectively you must apply the collar properly. Make sure you charged both the hand-held transmitter and the collar receiver. When applying the collar to your dog’s neck, place the receiver’s prongs on the ventral portion of your dog’s neck and make sure each prong makes contact with your dog’s skin. Furthermore, tighten the neck strap sufficiently so that the collar will not rotate about your dog’s neck when he/she moves. Both prongs must remain in contact with your dog’s skin to complete a circuit. Otherwise, the collar will not work.
The fit is less important for the vibration option, but still relevant. If the collar is too loose, then the dog will barely feel the vibration, especially if you have a thick-coated dog. Moreover, if the neck strap is too loose, then the collar is likely to rotate around your dog’s neck, rather than remain in position.
Historically, CPT clients who use electronic collars recommend either Educator or Dogtra brand collars.
Passive aversive conditioning offers 3 principal advantages versus active or semi-active aversive conditioning. First, because you are not present, we eliminate the risk of retaliatory dog-owner aggression or injury to the dog-owner relationship.
Second, since you are not present during administration of the aversive, the probability is highest that your dog will associate the aversive with his/her destructive chewing behavior, and not with an incidental stimulus, such as your presence. Therefore, we have a higher probability of effective behavior modification.
Third, since you don’t need to be present, you are not figuratively chained to your dog for the method to work.
Fourth, since you don’t need to be present, human error is less relevant. Therefore, the method works consistently, which expedites behavior modification. Your dog will promptly receive the aversive each time your dog interacts with an inappropriate item set up with the aversive.
In summary, passive training requires the least work for you amongst the aversive alternatives and is generally the most effective aversive option for modifying a chewing dog’s behavior.
The following are tools for applying passive aversive conditioning:
Taste deterrents use aversive bitter chemicals to deter your dog from returning to a specific item or location. Commercial taste deterrent products usually include the nontoxic chemical denatonium benzoate as the principal active ingredient.[75] Other chemicals, such as cucurbitacin B are more bitter, but are toxic to dogs and humans. Manufacturers often market denatonium with the trade names of Bitrex or Bitrix. Denatonium benzoate’s effectiveness as a bitterant depends principally upon the chemical’s concentration (measured in ppm) within a product.
In addition to the product’s potency, factors inherent to the dog affect the effectiveness of taste deterrent strategies. The first factor is the type of TAS2R gustatory receptor genes intrinsic to the specific dog and the number of corresponding taste receptors cells present on the dog’s tongue.
Humans have 25 types of TAS2R taste receptors that detect bitter molecules.[76] Each type of TAS2R receptor’s sensitivity to an individual molecule varies, based upon the size and shape of the molecule’s carbon skeleton, the constituency of atoms within the molecule, and the molecule’s functional group.[77] Dogs possess 16 orthologous TAS2R gustatory taste genes and receptors, of which 7 can detect denatonium. However, in comparison to a human, the dog’s TAS2R receptors appear less sensitive. Therefore, whereas most humans will perceive 10 ppm of denatonium benzoate as highly bitter, a dog may need to taste a 45 ppm concentration to elicit the same sensory response.[78]
Dogs will differ in taste receptor existence and number based upon breed, lineage, and individual inheritance.[79] Furthermore, age and medications may affect taste receptor sensitivity.[80][81][82]
The second factor is the dog’s olfactory characteristics and health. Breed, linear, and individual diversity is also true for canine olfactory genes and receptors.[83] Likewise, age, diet, health, and medications can affect olfactory receptor performance and, resultantly, affect gustatory sensitivity.[84][85][86] Olfaction is highly relevant to a dog exhibiting taste preferences or aversions.[87] Therefore, an anosmic dog may show a different response to a taste aversive than when healthy.
The third factor is the individual dog’s compulsion for chewing a specific inappropriate object or the magnitude of self-reward the dog receives from chewing the object. The more pronounced an obsessive-compulsive disorder or the more intrinsically rewarding the chewing activity, the more potent the aversive will need to be to deter the dog from immediately chewing the object and from returning to the object in the future.
To use a taste deterrent, apply the product to the area or item your dog chews inappropriately. For instance, you can apply the deterrent to wood trim, furniture, the remote control, or other places or objects where your dog has historically chewed and is likely to return. For any of the preceding locations, first test whether the product is absorbed and will cause staining. Nevertheless, your dog’s chewing has likely already caused deterioration or destruction of the location or object.
When selecting amongst taste deterrent products, we prefer gels over spray. Sprays tend to dissolve too quickly and are often too low in concentration to achieve effective results. Instead, purchase a gel product, such as Fooey Ultra Bitter Gel. Gel has a thicker substrate than a spray and should remain effective for a longer period.
If your dog does not respond to a commercial bitter product, then try a high-capsaicin paste. Do not use sauce. Use paste. Very hot pepper paste should effectively deter your dog. However, high-capsaicin paste is a second option, due to the potential for gastric upset and minor toxicity, based upon research discovering a potential for arrhythmia and blood pressure changes.[88] Yet, the research administered capsaicin intravenously, not orally.
ScatMat is a safe, electrostatic mat that is often highly effective as a passive aversive. The device can keep a dog away from a door, window, furniture, or cushion by placing the ScatMat in front of the location. ScatMat can deter a dog from chewing an object by placing the object atop the ScatMat. Then, your dog will receive a mild electrostatic stimulus when stepping on the mat to contact the object.
The response is like socks on a carpet. Not painful, but startling, especially to an unwary dog. The classically conditoned aversive association between the object and the electrostatic stimulus should deter your dog immediately and for the future, especially after 2 – 3 exposures- and provided you apply the ScatMat consistently until chewing behavior targeted toward the location or object is incontrovertibly extinguished.
ScatMat is battery operated. The device has 3 level options- low, medium, and high. Use the medium level. The low level may be too low, whereupon your dog habituates to the tactile sensory stimulus. The high level may be too high, whereupon we provoke fear or anxiety that may produce counterproductive generalized phobic behavior or that may actually impede learning. Therefore, the medium option is the best choice.
The major obstacle when using a ScatMat is your dog visibly recognizing the presence and pertinence of the ScatMat, whereby your dog knows inappropriate chewing is safe in the absence of the ScatMat. Consequently, your dog may return to chewing if the ScatMat is used inconsistently or for too short a period. You need to definitively “break the habit” before ceasing to use the Mat. Moreover, you may need to purchase several ScatMats if your dog inappropriately chews multiple items or locations.
The first step in resolving inappropriate chewing behavior is conducting a differential diagnosis to determine the probable cause. Next, custom-designed solution plans should address the origin, apply preventive strategies, include positive symptomatic strategies, and perhaps include passive, semi-active, or active aversive techniques.
Since there are many possible origins and an even greater number of potential solutions, to minimize the risk of confusion or error, we recommend contacting CPT to schedule an in-home or virtual private appointment. CPT Head Trainers and Staff Trainers can properly diagnose the cause, design a customized solution plan unique to your pet, and teach you how to effectively implement the protocols prescribed within the plan, which maximizes the probability of rapid and long-term behavior modification success.
Yes, the CPT lesson will cost more than using the information in this article and then implementing solutions on your own. Yet, this article was meant more as a detailed encyclopedic information source for trainers and other pet industry professionals than as a do-it-yourself manual for pet owners. Consequently, we recommend an in-person or virtual appointment when solving personal pet problems.
Looking at the issue objectively, what is the cost of property damage from your dog’s chewing? And what is the figurative cost of your aggravation? Therefore, a CPT in-home or virtual private appointment will likely save you time, money, and heartache.
To schedule an appointment, please contact the CPT office by phone (404-236-2150) or use the Contact Form available on www.cpt-training.com.
© Mark Spivak and Comprehensive Pet Therapy, Inc. June 2025. All rights reserved.
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